Ethical hacking focuses on finding and fixing security weaknesses before attackers can exploit them. It follows structured steps like reconnaissance, scanning, exploitation, and reporting, using legal and authorized tools to strengthen systems.

Types of Hackers:

• White Hat – Ethical hackers who test with permission.
• Black Hat – Malicious hackers with harmful intent.
• Grey Hat – In-between, often without permission, but not always malicious.

Legal & Ethical Aspects:

• Work only with proper authorization.
• Keep sensitive data private.
• Follow cybersecurity laws and compliance standards.
• Disclose vulnerabilities responsibly.

Roles of an Ethical Hacker:

• Identify and test vulnerabilities.
• Conduct penetration testing.
• Analyze risks and suggest solutions.
• Report findings clearly.
• Stay updated with the latest threats and tools.

Information gathering is the first step in ethical hacking, where hackers collect details about a target’s networks and systems. It includes passive methods (collecting data without direct interaction) and active methods (directly probing the system). The goal is to identify domain names, IP addresses, network infrastructure, and publicly available data such as social media footprints.

Key Techniques & Methods:

• Intelligence Gathering – Collecting information about networks, systems, and users.
• Passive vs. Active Reconnaissance – Passive uses public data, while active directly interacts with the target.
• Domain & IP Identification – Mapping domain names, IP addresses, and network components.
• Using Social Media & Public Sources – Extracting data from social platforms, websites, and open databases.

• Methods to scan networks for live hosts, open ports, and running services

• Hands-on use of popular scanning tools like Nmap, Nessus, and OpenVAS

• Understanding port scanning types: TCP SYN, UDP scans, and their impact

• Analyzing scan results to identify exploitable weaknesses in the network

• Extracting critical information such as usernames, machine names, network shares, and services

• Using enumeration tools like SNMPWalk, NetBIOS, and LDAP enumeration

• How enumeration exposes entry points for attacks

• Practical exercises on network and system enumeration

Vulnerability assessment is the process of checking systems, services, and applications to find security weaknesses. It uses automated scanning tools and manual testing to ensure accurate results. After detecting issues, vulnerabilities are evaluated and prioritized based on their severity and possible impact on the organization. Finally, the results are shared through detailed professional reports that guide teams in fixing the problems.

Key Points:

• Audit hosts, services, and applications to uncover weaknesses.
• Combine automated scans with manual verification for accuracy.
• Prioritize vulnerabilities according to risk and impact.
• Provide clear, professional reports with recommendations.

Social Engineering in Cybersecurity

1. Psychological Manipulation

   • Attackers exploit human trust and emotions to trick users into revealing sensitive data.

   • Focuses on people rather than technical systems.

2. Common Attack Types

   • Phishing – Fake emails or messages designed to steal credentials.

   • Pretexting – Impersonating someone trustworthy to extract information.

   • Baiting – Luring victims with free offers (e.g., infected USB drives).

   • Tailgating – Gaining physical access by following authorized personnel.

3. Recognizing & Mitigating Threats

   • Verify requests before sharing information.

   • Be cautious of unsolicited links or attachments.

   • Limit sharing of personal and organizational data online.

   • Enforce multi-factor authentication and strict access controls.

4. Importance of Security Awareness Training

   • Educates employees on how to spot social engineering attempts.

   • Builds a culture of vigilance within organizations.

   • Reduces the chances of successful attacks.

Session Hijacking in Cybersecurity

1. Exploiting Active Sessions

   • Attackers hijack an active user session to gain unauthorized access to accounts or systems.

   • Often targets web applications, online banking, or corporate portals.

2. Techniques Used

   • Session Fixation – Forcing a victim to use a known session ID so the attacker can later take over.

   • Sidejacking – Stealing session cookies over unsecured networks (like public Wi-Fi).

   • Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) – Injecting malicious scripts to steal session tokens.

3. Tools Commonly Used

   • Firesheep, Wireshark, Burp Suite – Tools that capture or manipulate session data.

   • Browser extensions or packet sniffers that expose cookies.

4. Prevention Techniques

   • Use HTTPS (SSL/TLS) for encrypted communication.

   • Implement secure, randomly generated session IDs.

   • Enable automatic session timeouts and re-authentication.

   • Protect cookies with HttpOnly and Secure flags.

   • Educate users about avoiding unsecured networks.

Bypassing and Strengthening Network Defenses

1. Role of IDS and Firewalls
   • Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) monitor traffic for suspicious activity.
   • Firewalls filter traffic, blocking unauthorized access and allowing trusted communication.
2. Techniques Hackers Use to Bypass
   • Packet Fragmentation – Splitting malicious traffic into smaller pieces to avoid detection.
   • Encryption/Obfuscation – Hiding malicious code inside encrypted traffic.
   • Spoofing – Faking IP or MAC addresses to bypass filters.
   • Tunneling – Using allowed protocols (like HTTP/HTTPS) to carry hidden attacks.
3. Recognizing Traps (Honeypots & Deception)
   • Honeypots are decoy systems designed to lure attackers.
   • Deception technologies create fake vulnerabilities to track and study hacker behavior.
   • Hackers must distinguish real targets from traps to avoid exposure.
4. Best Practices to Strengthen Defenses
   • Keep firewalls and IDS/IPS updated with the latest signatures.
   • Use multi-layered security (defense in depth).
   • Regularly patch and update systems.
   • Monitor logs and alerts for unusual patterns.
   • Train employees to recognize suspicious activities.

Web Application Security

1. Common Vulnerabilities

   • Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): Attackers inject malicious scripts into web pages viewed by users.

   • Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF): Tricks users into performing unwanted actions on authenticated sites.

   • Broken Authentication: Weak or misconfigured login systems that allow attackers to hijack accounts.

2. Penetration Testing Tools

   • Burp Suite: Used for intercepting, analyzing, and exploiting web requests.

   • OWASP ZAP: Open-source tool for scanning and testing web applications for vulnerabilities.

3. Securing Web Applications

   • Validate and sanitize all user inputs.

   • Use strong authentication methods (MFA, secure password policies).

   • Implement proper session management (secure cookies, timeouts).

   • Apply security patches and updates regularly.

   • Conduct regular penetration testing and code reviews.

SQL Injection (SQLi) in Cybersecurity

1. What is SQL Injection?
   • SQLi is a common web vulnerability where attackers insert malicious SQL code into input fields.
   • It can allow unauthorized access, let attackers view, modify, or delete data, and in severe cases, take full control of the database.
2. How SQLi is Detected and Exploited
   • Error-Based SQLi – Generates database errors that reveal useful information.
   • Union-Based SQLi – Uses the UNION operator to pull data from additional tables.
   • Blind SQLi – Extracts data by sending queries that return only true/false responses when errors are hidden.
   • Tools like SQLMap, Havij, and Burp Suite help identify and exploit SQLi vulnerabilities.
3. How to Prevent SQL Injection
   • Use prepared statements (parameterized queries) instead of dynamic SQL.
   • Apply input validation and sanitization to filter user inputs.
   • Enforce the principle of least privilege for database accounts.
   • Keep database servers and applications patched and updated.
   • Perform regular security testing and code reviews.

Wireless Network Security

1. Security Challenges

• Wi-Fi networks are vulnerable to eavesdropping, unauthorized access, and man-in-the-middle attacks because of their open nature.
• Weak encryption or poor configurations make networks easier to exploit.

2. Cracking Encryption Protocols

• Attackers target outdated protocols like WEP, WPA, and WPA2.
• Brute-force and dictionary attacks are used to guess passwords and gain access.

3. Auditing & Testing Tools

• Aircrack-ng – Used for cracking Wi-Fi passwords.
• Kismet – Detects wireless networks and captures packets.
• Wireshark – Analyzes network traffic for vulnerabilities.

4. Protection Methods

• Use strong encryption (WPA3 recommended).
• Create complex passwords and update them regularly.
• Disable WPS and keep router firmware updated.
• Monitor connected devices and watch for suspicious activity.

Mobile Device Security

1. Security Risks in Android & iOS

• Android: Higher risk due to open-source nature, third-party app stores, and slower updates.
• iOS: More controlled but vulnerable to jailbreaking, phishing, and malicious apps.
• Both face threats like data leakage, weak app permissions, and unsafe Wi-Fi use.

2. Exploitation Techniques

• Mobile OS Vulnerabilities: Hackers exploit outdated versions or unpatched flaws.
• Insecure Apps: Poor coding or weak authentication can expose sensitive data.
• Malware & Spyware: Hidden apps or downloads used to steal information.

3. Mobile Device Management (MDM) & Best Practices

• Enforce device encryption and strong password policies.
• Enable remote wipe to protect data if devices are lost or stolen.
• Regular OS and app updates to patch vulnerabilities.
• Restrict app installations to trusted sources only.
• Monitor devices through MDM solutions for compliance and threat detection.

1. IoT Device Architecture & Security Flaws

• Architecture: IoT devices include sensors, connectivity modules, applications, and cloud services.
• Common Flaws: Weak/default passwords, unpatched firmware, insecure APIs, and a lack of encryption.

2. Exploitation Methods

• Smart Homes: Hackers exploit weak Wi-Fi or default router settings to gain access to smart TVs, cameras, and speakers.
• Industrial IoT: Attackers target SCADA/ICS systems to disrupt production or steal sensitive data.
• Wearables: Data interception from fitness trackers or health devices through insecure connections.

3. Security Measures

• Use strong authentication and avoid default credentials.
• Apply regular firmware and software updates.
• Enable end-to-end encryption for data communication.
• Segment IoT devices on a separate network for better isolation.
• Monitor IoT activity with threat detection tools.

1. Fundamentals of Cloud Computing & Risks

• Cloud Computing: Provides on-demand access to storage, servers, applications, and services via the internet.
• Associated Risks: Data breaches, account hijacking, insecure APIs, and data loss due to misconfigurations.

2. Security Challenges in Multi-Tenant Environments

• Shared Resources: Multiple users/organizations share the same infrastructure (AWS, Azure, Google Cloud).
• Risks: Data leakage, unauthorized access, insider threats, and weak isolation between tenants.

3. Best Practices for Securing Cloud Infrastructure

• Use strong identity and access management (IAM) policies.
• Enable data encryption at rest and in transit.
• Apply regular monitoring and auditing of cloud activities.
• Keep systems, apps, and APIs patched against vulnerabilities.
• Implement multi-factor authentication (MFA) for all users.

1. Principles of Encryption, Hashing, and Digital Signatures

• Encryption: Converts readable data (plaintext) into an unreadable form (ciphertext) to protect it.
• Hashing: Generates a fixed-length value from data, ensuring integrity (commonly used for passwords and file verification).
• Digital Signatures: Verify the authenticity of data and the sender, ensuring non-repudiation.

2. Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Cryptography

• Symmetric Cryptography: Uses the same key for encryption and decryption (faster but less secure if the key is exposed).
• Asymmetric Cryptography: Uses a pair of keys (public and private); one encrypts and the other decrypts (slower but more secure).

3. Role of Cryptography in Security

• Ensures confidentiality (only authorized users can read data).
• Provides integrity (data cannot be altered without detection).
• Supports authentication (verifying the sender’s identity).
• Enables non-repudiation (sender cannot deny sending data).

1. Introduction to Bug Bounty Programs

• Bug bounty programs give security researchers a legal way to discover vulnerabilities in applications or systems and report them to organizations for rewards or recognition.
• Participants are rewarded with monetary incentives or recognition for responsible reporting.

2. Penetration Testing Process

• Planning: Define the scope, rules, and goals of the test.
• Reconnaissance: Gather intelligence about the target (domains, IPs, services).
• Exploitation: Attempt to exploit discovered vulnerabilities.
• Reporting: Document findings, risks, and recommendations for fixing issues.

3. Hands-on Training Tools

• Nmap: For network scanning and discovery.
• Metasploit: For exploitation and testing security defenses.
• AD Pentesting Tools: Specialized for Active Directory security testing.

4. Ethical Disclosure & Vulnerability Management

• Always follow responsible disclosure practices when reporting bugs.
• Work with organizations to fix vulnerabilities instead of exposing them.
• Maintain professionalism and follow legal boundaries while testing.